Chapter 3 - Semantics تالته انجليزي عام

Chapter 3 - Semantics

· Structure / function words ( closed class )
classified into Determiners, Prepositions, Conjunctions and Pronouns. We'll be looking at them later. They are very common, and there are only a couple of hundred of them. Most of them are short, worn down from constant use. They mostly indicate grammatical relations.

· Content words ( open class )
are words that have meaning, are further classified into Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs. There are tens of thousands of them in a language and so they make up most of the words in a dictionary. Proper nouns (names of people and places) are not usually a problem for understanding, but are also Content Words.

Function Words	examples
Prepositions	of, at, in, without, between
Pronouns	he, they, anybody, it, one
Determiners	the, a, that, my, more, much, either, neither
Conjunctions	and, that, when, while, although, or
Modal verbs	can, must, will, should, ought, need, used
Auxilliary verbs	be (is, am, are), have, got, do
Particles	no, not, nor, as

Content Words	examples
Nouns	John, room, answer, Selby
Adjectives	happy, new, large, grey
Full verbs	search, grow, hold, have
Adverbs	really, completely, very, also, enough
Numerals	one, thousand, first
Interjections	eh, ugh, phew, well
Yes/No answers	yes, no (as answers)

· Semantic range
I conceive of semantic range as a reflection of a word’s meaning in terms of its typical range of use.
it plays an important role in antonymy.

· Synonyms
are different words (or sometimes phrases) with identical or very similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy.
Synonyms can be any part of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions), as long as both members of the pair are the same part of speech. More examples of English synonyms are:

student and pupil (noun)
petty crime and misdemeanor (noun)
buy and purchase (verb)
sick and ill (adjective)

quickly and speedily (adverb)
on and upon (preposition)

Antonyms
are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings. For example:
- short and tall
- dead and alive
- increase and decrease
- synonym and antonym
Hyponyms and hyponyms
are words that refer to, respectively, a general category and a specific instance of that category. For example, vehicle is a hypernym of car, and car is a hyponym of vehicle.
Collocation
is the relationship between two words or groups of words that often go together and form a common expression. If the expression is heard often, the words become 'glued' together in our minds. 'Crystal clear', 'middle management' 'nuclear family' and 'cosmetic surgery' are examples of collocated pairs of words. Some words are often found together because they make up a compound noun, for example 'riding boots' or 'motor cyclist'.
An idiom
is a phrase that means something else than the literal words. Idioms always have figurative, not literal meanings. Here are some examples:
* to get under someone's skin (to bother someone) - She's getting under my skin these days!
* no spring chicken (not young) - Tom's no spring chicken. He's almost 70!
A cliche
is a phase which is considered overused (used too often) which can be literal or figurative in meaning.
Here are some examples:
- the good old days (literal = in the past when things were better) - I remember my years at college. - - Yes, those were the good old days
A homophone
is a word which has exactly the same pronunciation as another word although the spelling and meaning are different.

One- won
nose - knows
write - right
piece - peace
air, heir clew, clue climb, clime
principal, principle / profit, prophet / quarts, quartz / quean, queen / rap, wrap / raw, roar / real, reel / reek, wreak / rest, wrest / retch, wretch / wood, would / yaw, yore, your, you're
Heterophony (also known as heteronyms )
are words with identical spellings but different pronunciations and meanings.
Some examples are
abuse n. improper treatment
v. to use improperly
advocate
v. to argue for someone else
n. a person who speaks in support of something
Homonym is one of a group of words that share the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings,
A homograph
is one of a group of words that share the same spelling but have different meanings. A homograph can be either a homonym or a heterphone.
homograph" is sometimes used as a synomym for homoglyph.
Examples:

shift n. (a change)
shift n. (a period at work)
shift v. (slang for 'move it')
Examples of homonyms are
* stalk (which as a noun can mean part of a plant, and as a verb to follow/harass a person) - bear (animal) and bear (carry), left (opposite of right) and left (past tense of leave).
· A taboo
is a strong social prohibition (or ban) against words, objects, actions, or discussions that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group, culture, society, or community. Breaking a taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent. Some taboo activities or customs are prohibited by law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Other taboos result in embarrassment, shame and rudeness.
· A euphemism
is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener. Some euphemisms are intended to be funny.
When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. Euphemisms may be used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. There are also superstitious euphemisms, based (consciously or subconsciously) on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not speaking the word "cancer
- The relationship between words and meanings is extremely complicated, and belongs to the field of semantics
· denotation

a literal meaning of the word
· connotation

an association (emotional or otherwise) which the word evokes
For example, both "woman" and "chick" have the denotation "adult female" in North American society, but "chick" has somewhat negative connotations, while "woman" is neutral.
For another example of connotations, consider the following:
negative

There are over 2,000 vagrants in the city.
neutral

There are over 2,000 people with no fixed address in the city.
positive

There are over 2,000 homeless in the city.
All three of these expressions refer to exactly the same people, but they will invoke different associations in the reader's mind: a "vagrant" is a public nuisance while a "homeless" person is a worthy object of pity and charity.

· A polyseme
is a word or phrase with multiple, related meanings. A word is judged to be polysemous if it has two senses of the word whose meanings are related.

Mole
a small burrowing mammal
consequently, there are several different entities called moles (see the Mole disambiguation page). Although these refer to different things, their names derive from 1. :e.g. A Mole burrows for information hoping to go undetected.
Bank
a financial institution
the building where a financial institution offers services
a synonym for 'rely upon' (e.g. "I'm your friend, you can bank on me"). It is different, but related, as it derives from the theme of security initiated by 1
However: a river bank is a homonym to 1 and 2, as they do not share etymologies. It is a completely different meaning. River bed, though, is polysemous with the beds on which people sleep.

Book
a bound collection of pages
a text reproduced and distributed (thus, someone who has read the same text on a computer has read the same book as someone who had the actual paper volume)
Milk

The verb milk (e.g. "he's milking it for all he can get") derives from the process of obtaining milk.
Wood
a piece of a tree
a geographical area with many trees
- There is an extensive doubtful area between the concepts of polysemy and homonymy. A word like "walk" is polysemous (went walking, went for a walk, walk the dog, Meadow Walk Drive), while a word like "bank" is homonymous between at least "bank" for money and the "bank" of a river.
- The coexistence of several meanings in one word, which is extremely common, as stated earlier, is called polysemy.
· Homonym
is one of a group of words that share the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings.
a pupil" (in school) and the "pupil" (of the eye) are usually listed as different words; although in fact they have the same historical origin.
table" (furniture) and "table" (arrangement of data)
bank" for money and the "bank" of a river.
Associative Meaning
According to the semantic analysis of Geoffrey Leech, the associative meaning of an expression has to do with individual mental understandings of the speaker. They, in turn, can be broken up into six sub-types: connotative, collocative, social, affective, reflected and thematic (Mwihaki 2004).

The connotative meanings of an expression are the thoughts provoked by a term when in reference to certain entities. Though these meanings may not be strictly implied by relevant definitions, they show up in common or preferred usage regardless. This is not to be confused with what is historically referred to as connotation, which more closely describes rigid definitions of words.
Collocative meaning, or "collocation", describes words that regularly appear together in common use (within certain contexts).
Social meaning, where words are used to establish relationships between people and to delineate social roles. For example, in Japanese, the suffix "-san" when added to a proper name denotes respect, sometimes indicating that the speaker is subordinate to the listener; while the suffix "-chan" denotes that the speaker thinks the listener is a child or childlike (either for purposes of affection or derision).
Affective meaning has to do with the personal feelings or attitudes of the speaker.
Reflected meaning has to do with when one sense of a particular word affects the understanding and usage of all the other senses of the word.
Thematic meaning concerns itself with how the order of words spoken affects the meaning that is entailed.

DA : linguistic analysis of naturally occurring connected speech or written discourse.

Definition

A speech act is an act that a speaker performs when making an utterance, including the following:

A general act (illocutionary act) that a speaker performs, analyzable as including

the uttering of words (utterance acts)
making reference and predicating (propositional acts), and
a particular intention in making the utterance (illocutionary force)
An act involved in the illocutionary act, including utterance acts and propositional acts
The production of a particular effect in the addressee (perlocutionary act)

Kinds

Here are some kinds of speech acts:

What is an illocutionary act?
What is a perlocutionary act?
What is a propositional act?
What is an utterance act?

Performative utterances or illocutionary acts
- is the doing of a certain kind of action
- Definition :
An illocutionary act is a complete speech act, made in a typical utterance, that consists of

the delivery of the propositional content of the utterance (including references and a predicate), and
a particular illocutionary force, whereby the speaker

asserts
suggests
demands
promises, or
vows.

Examples of performative sentences

'I do (sc. take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife)' -- as uttered in the course of the marriage ceremony.
'I name this ship the "Queen Elizabeth"'
'I give and bequeath my watch to my brother' -- as occurring in a will
'I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow' (Austin 1962, 5)
As Austin refers to two types of performative utterances, explicit performatives and ( "implicit", "primitive", or "inexplicit" performatives )
· The conceptual meaning
Understanding a passage involves understanding four levels of meaning:
1- conceptual meaning 2 - propositional meaning 3- contextual meaning 4- pragmatical meaning
These four kinds of meaning can be found in every text, though sometimes one is more important than another.
The conceptual meaning of a word is known as the dictionary meaning which indicates the concepts. In reading we can find many different words have the same conceptual meanings. Take the word walk as an example, the conceptual meaning or the primary dictionary meaning is to move forward by placing one foot in front of the other. There are also a few other words that, according to the dictionary, mean to move forward on foot:
The newlyweds strolled down the streets of Paris.
(Stroll suggests a leisurely, carefree walk)
The wealthy businessman swaggered into the restaurant and demanded a table.
(Swagger suggest walking in a bold, arrogant manner.)
The overweight man lumbered along, breathing heavily and occasionally tripping.
(Lumber suggests a clumsy, awkward movement.)
· Semantics : * the study of meaning
* When we think about meaning, it is also important to take into account the contribution of context.
* Then, we can think about Pragmatics as the study of the contribution of context to meaning.
* Pragmatics is a way of investigating how sense can be made of certain texts
· Felicity Conditions or conditions violated :
is the situationally inappropriate use of a sentence
felicity conditions allow us to determine under what circumstances it is appropriate to ask questions, give commands, and so forth.
As an example, here are some felicity conditions associated with questioning and requesting.
S questions H about P (some state of affairs)

S does not know the truth about P.
S wants to know the truth about P.
S believes H may know the truth about P.
What's going on with the felicity conditions for questioning? Well, for starters, we can see that appropriate use of questions must satisfy a number of criteria.

If someone asks you a question, you assume that s/he doesn't know the answer to the question. That 's inherent in condition 1.
If someone asks you, they actually want to know the truth. That's number 2.
If someone asks you, they think you may know the truth (or answer). Hence, number 3.
Componential analysis ( feature analysis or contrast analysis )
- a method of linguistic analysis used to establish definitions within a relatively finite set of terms or elements
- refers to the description of the meaning of words through structured sets of semantic features, which are given as “present”, “absent” or “indifferent with reference to feature.componential analysis
man = [+ male], [+ mature] or woman = [– male], [+ mature] or boy = [+ male], [– mature] or girl [– male] [– mature] or child [+/– male] [– mature]. In other words, the word girl can have three basic factors (or semantic properties): human, young, and female.

زائر

هو ده

اصلى يا سعيد
استمر

ميرسى ليكى يا دوددا

انتظرى المزيد

ايه الحلاوة دى يا سعيد بجد جااااااااامد

فى انتظار المزيد

ميرسى ليك يا مودى

تسلم

شكرا ياسعيدعلى مجهودك يعنى نزاكر وراك ولا اية ؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟

زاكر يا اسلام

ربنا يوفقك
ويوفقنا

اية دة يا واد بتزاكر من ورايا ولا اية
قشطات

ههههههههههههههههههههههههههه

عيب عليك
انا اقدر
شكرا يا مودى على مرورك
ياحبى
تسلملى

مودى تقصدى انا ولا السعيد ؟لو تقصدى انا انت عارفنى كويس وعارف الموقف اللى انا واخده من المزاكرة ديما متخاصمين ههههههههههههههههههههههه

مش هتفرق يا اسلام

احنا الاتنين موقفنا واحد
تسلم يا جميل

انته بجد هايل على انته عامله بس هيبقى اجمل لو انته زاكرته

عندك حق طبعا يا لوف
منورة التوبيك

بجد رائــــــــــــــــــــــــع تسلم ايدك

جــــــــــــــــــــزاك الله كل خير وبارك فيك

شكـــــــــراا لك على الشرح والتلخيص الهايل

ميرسى ليكى جدا
نورتى يا جميل

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